University of Ciego de Ávila Máximo Gómez Báez
|
ISSN: 2309-8333
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RNPS: 2411
|13(1) |2025|
This is an Open Access article under the license CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/)
Estrategia y Gestión Universitaria EGU
Scientific and technological
research article
How to cite this article:
Calderón
Arregui, D. A., Godoy Mena, M. J., &
Marrero Fernández, A. (2025).
Autopercepción de las Conductas de
Liderazgo en una Institución de Educación
Superior Militar: Un Estudio en la
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas-ESPE.
Estrategia y Gestión Universitaria
, 13(1),
e8608.
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14804300
Received: 02/07/2024
Accepted: 19/01/2025
Published: 10/02/2025
Corresponding author:
dacalderon07@gmail.com
Conflict of interest:
The authors declare
that they have no conflict of interest that
may have influenced the results obtained
or the proposed interpretations
.
Self-perception of Leadership
Behaviors in a Military Higher
Education Institution: A Study at
the Armed Forces University–ESPE
Autopercepción de las Conductas de
Liderazgo en una Institución de
Educación Superior Militar: Un Estudio
en la Universidad de las Fuerzas
Armadas-ESPE
Autopercepção dos Comportamentos de
Liderança em uma Instituição de Ensino
Superior Militar: Um Estudo na
Universidade das Forças Armadas-ESPE
Abstract
Introduction: leadership in military higher education
institutions, such as the Armed Forces University (UFA-ESPE),
plays a fundamental role in their academic management and
organizational development. Objective: to analyze how the
directors of UFA-ESPE perceive their leadership in the
dimensions of tasks, relationships, and change, and its
implications in a military educational environment. Method: a
descriptive quantitative approach was employed with a
sample of 70 directors. Data collection was carried out using
the CONLID-A questionnaire, evaluating reliability with the
Cronbach's Alpha coefficient. Results: the directors show a
positive perception of their leadership, with relationship-
oriented behaviors (mean of 4.33) standing out, followed by
task-oriented (4.26) and change-oriented (4.20) behaviors,
reflecting a balance between operational efficiency and the
promotion of interpersonal relationships in the military
environment. Conclusion: the findings suggest that the
directors of UFA-ESPE perceive effective leadership in the
three key dimensions. In the context of military educational
institutions, these behaviors are essential to maintain
cohesion and adapt to changes, highlighting the importance of
training programs that promote comprehensive and balanced
leadership.
Keywords: leadership behaviors, CONLID-A questionnaire,
university managers, military educational context
Resumen
Introducción: el liderazgo en instituciones de educación
superior militar, como la Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas
(UFA-ESPE), juega un papel fundamental en su gestión
académica y desarrollo organizacional. Objetivo: analizar
cómo los directivos de la UFA-ESPE perciben su liderazgo en
las dimensiones de tareas, relaciones y cambio y sus
implicaciones en un entorno educativo militar.
David Alexander Calderón Arregui
1
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0332-3601
dacalderon07@gmail.com
Ecuador
Marisol Josefina Godoy Mena
2
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8847-470X
marisol_csb24@hotmail.com
Ecuador
Adriana Marrero Fernández
3
Universidad de la República
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0783-5775
adriana.marrero.fernandez@gmail.com
Uruguay
Estrategia y Gestión Universitaria
|
ISSN
: 2309-8333
|
RNPS:
2411
13(1) | January-June |2025|
| David Alexander Calderón Arregui | Marisol Josefina Godoy Mena |
Adriana Marrero Fernández |
Método:
se empleó un enfoque cuantitativo descriptivo con 70 directivos como
muestra. La recolección de datos se realizó mediante el cuestionario CONLID-A,
evaluando la fiabilidad con el coeficiente Alfa de Cronbach.
Resultados:
los
directivos muestran una percepción positiva de su liderazgo, destacándose las
conductas orientadas a las relaciones (media de 4.33), seguidas por las orientadas
a las tareas (4.26) y al cambio (4.20), lo que refleja un equilibrio entre la
eficiencia operativa y el fomento de relaciones interpersonales en el entorno
militar.
Conclusión:
los hallazgos sugieren que los directivos de la UFA-ESPE
perciben un liderazgo efectivo en las tres dimensiones clave. En el contexto de
instituciones educativas militares, estas conductas son esenciales para mantener
la cohesión y adaptarse a los cambios, lo que resalta la importancia de programas
de formación que promuevan un liderazgo integral y equilibrado.
Palabras clave:
conductas de liderazgo, cuestionario CONLID-A, directivos
universitarios, contexto educativo militar
Resumo
Introdução: a liderança em instituições de ensino superior militar, como a
Universidade das Forças Armadas (UFA-ESPE), desempenha um papel fundamental
na sua gestão acadêmica e desenvolvimento organizacional. Objetivo: analisar
como os diretores da UFA-ESPE percebem sua liderança nas dimensões de tarefas,
relacionamentos e mudanças, e suas implicações em um ambiente educacional
militar. Método: foi empregada uma abordagem quantitativa descritiva com uma
amostra de 70 diretores. A coleta de dados foi realizada por meio do questionário
CONLID-A, avaliando a confiabilidade com o coeficiente Alfa de Cronbach.
Resultados: os diretores mostram uma percepção positiva de sua liderança,
destacando-se os comportamentos orientados para relacionamentos (média de
4,33), seguidos pelos orientados para tarefas (4,26) e para mudanças (4,20),
refletindo um equilíbrio entre eficiência operacional e promoção de
relacionamentos interpessoais no ambiente militar. Conclusão: Os achados
sugerem que os diretores da UFA-ESPE percebem uma liderança eficaz nas três
dimensões-chave. No contexto de instituições educacionais militares, esses
comportamentos são essenciais para manter a coesão e se adaptar às mudanças,
destacando a importância de programas de formação que promovam uma
liderança abrangente e equilibrada.
Palavras-chave:
comportamentos de liderança, questionário CONLID-A, gestores
universitários, contexto educacional militar
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Introduction
Understanding leadership in military educational institutions, such as the
Armed Forces University – ESPE (UFA-ESPE), formerly known as the Higher
Polytechnic School of the Army (ESPE), is essential due to the unique interaction
between academic and disciplinary demands. This article addresses the self-
perception of leadership behaviors among the administrators of this institution,
analyzing key dimensions such as task orientation, relationships, and change—
dimensions that have been highlighted by previous research (Geraldo et al., 2020;
Márquez & Chávez, 2021; Demircioglu & Chowdhury, 2021). The research is grounded
in the use of the CONLID-A questionnaire, proposed by Castro et al. (2007), a
validated instrument that allows for the analysis of how leaders perceive their
behaviors in an environment characterized by its organizational duality.
In the current context, leadership is defined not only by the ability to
manage tasks but also by the capacity to foster strong relationships and lead
processes of change. Previous studies emphasize the relevance of leadership and its
impact on the management of educational institutions (Lasso et al., 2019; Huerta &
Muñoz, 2020; Rivera & Higuera, 2022; Moscoso & Calderón, 2023; Cardeño Portela et
al., 2023; Calderón Arregui, 2023). However, in military educational environments,
these dynamics acquire a particular dimension as they require balancing high-
performance standards with team cohesion and motivation (Fournier, 2019; Gómez
Miranda, 2023; Calderón Arregui & Sánchez, 2023; Jiménez-Pitre et al., 2023;
Calderón Arregui et al., 2023; Leso et al., 2023; Assoratgoon & Kantabutra, 2023).
Leadership is a fundamental concept for understanding organizational
dynamics and the development of educational institutions, especially in military
contexts (Nader & Castro, 2009; García & Pastor, 2022; Pastor et al., 2021; Uhl-Bien,
2021; McCauley & Palus, 2021; Torres, 2022; Whyte et al., 2022; Chatterjee et al.,
2023; Calderón Arregui et al., 2023; Ahmad et al., 2024). Leadership theory has
evolved significantly over time, from models centered on individual traits to more
comprehensive approaches that consider relationships, tasks, and organizational
change processes (Hemphill & Coons, 1957; Stogdill et al., 1963). This theoretical
evolution allows for examining the phenomenon of leadership as a complex process
that combines technical, interpersonal, and strategic skills.
In the realm of military higher education, leadership acquires particular
relevance due to the need to balance high levels of discipline with an academic
environment that fosters innovation and critical thinking (Wagner et al., 2022;
O’Connor & Kearney, 2023; Solano et al., 2024). According to Yukl (2002), leadership
is defined as a process of social influence through which an individual guides and
motivates a group toward the achievement of common goals. This theoretical
framework serves as the basis for analyzing leadership behaviors in institutions like
UFA-ESPE, where hierarchical structure and academic demands intertwine.
Leadership behaviors can be categorized into three main dimensions: task-
oriented, relationship-oriented, and change-oriented (Yukl, 2002; Castro et al.,
2007). First, task-oriented behaviors focus on the planning, organization, and
supervision of activities to ensure the achievement of organizational objectives.
These behaviors are essential in military contexts, where operational precision and
effectiveness are priorities. Second, relationship-oriented behaviors aim to promote
| David Alexander Calderón Arregui | Marisol Josefina Godoy Mena |
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communication, trust, and mutual support among team members. These skills are
key to maintaining motivation and cohesion in environments where hierarchical
structures prevail (Bass & Avolio, 1994). Finally, change-oriented behaviors reflect
the leader's capacity to manage organizational transformations, anticipating
challenges and fostering innovation.
In the context of UFA-ESPE, the self-perception of leadership styles takes on
a critical dimension. The perception that leaders have of their own capabilities
directly influences their ability to lead teams and promote significant changes
(Geraldo et al., 2020). This study uses the CONLID-A questionnaire, developed by
Castro et al. (2007), as a tool to evaluate leadership behaviors across the three
mentioned dimensions. This instrument has been validated in educational and
military contexts, demonstrating its reliability for measuring self-perception of
leadership.
Moreover, the literature suggests that leadership in military educational
institutions faces unique challenges (Srivastava et al., 2021; Polatcan, 2023; Anwar
& Saraih, 2024), such as the need to manage change while upholding traditional
values of discipline and hierarchy (Fournier, 2019). This underscores the importance
of developing training programs that strengthen leadership competencies,
integrating theoretical and practical approaches that enable leaders to respond to
the changing demands of the environment (Way et al., 2024).
To delve deeper into the topic, it is necessary to analyze key terms that
provide conceptual clarity and relevance within the research framework. First, the
term effectiveness refers to a leader’s ability to achieve objectives optimally,
considering the available resources (Robinson et al., 2016). On the other hand,
competencies encompass the skills, knowledge, and attitudes that allow a leader to
respond adequately to environmental demands (Paguay, 2021). In military
educational institutions, these competencies include strategic leadership, effective
communication, conflict management, and adaptability to change (Fournier
Guimbao, 2019).
Complementarily, effectiveness is associated with the outcomes achieved
relative to the established objectives, evaluated both in terms of their impact on
the organization and on the individuals involved (Ascón Villa et al., 2018). Thus, an
effective leader is one who not only achieves organizational goals but also fosters a
motivating and healthy environment (Calderón Arregui & Sánchez, 2023). In this
context, leadership effectiveness is defined as the leader's ability to positively
influence the achievement of goals and the development of their team, adapting to
environmental dynamics.
Furthermore, analyzing the educational and military environments is
fundamental to this research. The educational environment is characterized as a
space for teaching and learning where academic and formative aspects converge
(Amador Ortíz, 2018). However, in military institutions, this environment takes on a
dual character by also integrating disciplinary elements and value formation. Thus,
the military environment, defined by its hierarchical structure, strict discipline, and
high-performance standards, demands leadership capable of ensuring results while
fostering cohesion and commitment among its members (Calderón Arregui, 2023). In
| David Alexander Calderón Arregui | Marisol Josefina Godoy Mena |
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summary, this work aims to contribute to the development of leadership strategies
tailored to the specificities of the military-educational environment, providing a
conceptual basis for future training programs and organizational policies.
Materials and methods
The methodological perspective adopted in this study was quantitative,
focusing on the assessment of the self-perception of leadership styles among the
directors of UFA-ESPE. This approach allowed for the identification of predominant
leadership behaviors and the analysis of their relationships, framing the research as
descriptive and correlational (Hernández-Sampieri & Mendoza, 2020; Medina et al.,
2023).
Data collection was conducted using the CONLID-A questionnaire developed
by Castro et al. (2007), designed to measure self-perception across three dimensions:
task-oriented behaviors, relationship-oriented behaviors, and change-oriented
behaviors. This instrument consists of 34 items evaluated on a 5-point Likert scale,
ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”.
The target population comprised 104 directors at UFA-ESPE, who hold
leadership roles such as rector, vice-rectors, extension sub-directors, heads of
department, and program coordinators. Although the study initially aimed for a
census of all directors, 70 participated, representing 67.3% of the total population.
While this sample size was lower than the estimated 83 directors calculated for a 5%
margin of error, it was sufficient to provide reliable results. The specific margin of
error was recalculated for the 70 participants, yielding an approximate value of
6.73%, which remains acceptable for the 95% confidence level established in the
design.
The study design was non-experimental, cross-sectional, and survey-based.
Data were collected at a single point in time and analyzed to identify patterns and
relationships among the evaluated dimensions. SPSS 22 software was used to process
the data, performing descriptive analyses (means, standard deviations, medians, and
modes), reliability analyses, and correlational and factor analyses (Pooper, 1980).
The obtained Cronbach's Alpha was 0.987, confirming the high reliability of the
questionnaire, in accordance with Bourque et al. (2020) and Calderón Arregui et al.
(2023). Furthermore, Pearson correlations reflected positive and significant
relationships among the leadership dimensions, highlighting their interconnection.
Finally, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) validated the unidimensional
structure of the questionnaire, with high factor loadings across all dimensions (López
& Gutiérrez, 2019). These findings reinforce the validity and reliability of the
instrument, providing a solid methodological foundation for interpreting leadership
perceptions in the evaluated context.
Results and discussion
According to the processing of the data collected through the survey, the
Central Campus (Managua) accounted for 89% of the respondents, while the Regional
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In this section, we present the findings from the analysis of the self-perception of
leadership styles among the directors of UFA-ESPE, using the CONLID-A
questionnaire. We analyze leadership behaviors across three key dimensions: tasks,
relationships, and change. Additionally, we evaluate the reliability of the instrument
and explore the correlations among these dimensions to validate the cohesion of the
questionnaire.
Self-Perception of directors regarding their leadership behaviors
The self-perception of the directors regarding their leadership behaviors, as
detailed in Figure 1, reveals a balanced and positive profile across the three analyzed
dimensions: task-oriented, relationship-oriented, and change-oriented. This
underscores the importance of leadership as a strategic element for organizational
success in military educational environments.
Figure 1
Results of self-perception of leadership behaviors
Source: Author's own elaboration.
First, task-oriented behaviors present a mean score of 4.2595, categorizing
them as very high. This result suggests that directors prioritize fundamental aspects
such as planning, organization, and achievement of objectives. These characteristics
are essential in a military context, where discipline and operational precision are
foundational pillars. Furthermore, the low standard deviation indicates a
homogeneous perception among the directors, suggesting a strong capacity to
manage tasks effectively. This orientation is crucial not only to ensure the
achievement of institutional goals but also to facilitate the execution of strategic
projects.
On the other hand, relationship-oriented behaviors register the highest mean
score of 4.3333, also placing them in the very high category. This result reflects a
strong appreciation for interpersonal interactions, recognition of effort, and support
for the work team. In the military educational environment, these behaviors gain
particular relevance as they help balance hierarchical dynamics with the need to
Media Median
Standard
deviation
Variance Range Minimum
Maximu
m
Task behaviors (A)
4.2595 4.5000 .88312 .780 4.00 1.00 5.00
Relationship behaviors (A)
4.3333 4.6667 .87642 .768 4.00 1.00 5.00
Behavioral change (A)
4.2024 4.3333 .87958 .774 4.00 1.00 5.00
0.0000
1.0000
2.0000
3.0000
4.0000
5.0000
6.0000
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foster an atmosphere of trust and motivation. Consequently, these skills not only
strengthen team cohesion but also contribute to the efficient management of
conflicts and the development of a positive organizational climate.
However, while each dimension stands out for its own merits, it is essential
to interpret them interdependently. For instance, task orientation provides the
necessary structure for efficient operations. Nonetheless, this must be
complemented by a strong relationship orientation that fosters collaboration and
trust among team members. Similarly, change orientation acts as an integrative
element, facilitating the evolution of tasks and relationships to adapt to the
challenges and opportunities present in a dynamic environment. In conclusion, the
results highlight a positive and balanced self-perception among directors regarding
their leadership behaviors. Nevertheless, their analysis in the context of military
educational institutions emphasizes that organizational success depends on the
coherent interaction of the three dimensions: tasks, relationships, and change.
Task-oriented behaviors
The self-perception of the directors regarding task-oriented behaviors
reflects a highly positive and consistent view of their performance, particularly in
key aspects such as efficiency and the achievement of specific goals, as shown in
Figure 2. These results suggest that the directors see themselves as leaders focused
on ensuring that activities and operational processes are executed effectively, which
is critical in the structured and disciplined context of UFA-ESPE.
Figure 2
Results of self-perception of task-oriented behaviors
Media Median Fashion
Standard
deviation
Variance Range Minimum Maximum
Item 2. I monitor my group's activities and
performance.
4.2571 5.0000 5.00 1.00269 1.005 4.00 1.00 5.00
Item 5. I define high performance standards
for the Unit or Department.
4.2714 4.5000 5.00 .93128 .867 4.00 1.00 5.00
Item 8. I direct and coordinate the
activities of the Unit or Department.
4.2143 5.0000 5.00 1.01999 1.040 4.00 1.00 5.00
Item 11. I emphasize the importance of
efficiency, productivity and quality.
4.3429 5.0000 5.00 .97632 .953 4.00 1.00 5.00
Item 14. I organize activities to improve
performance.
4.2857 4.5000 5.00 .91909 .845 4.00 1.00 5.00
Item 17. I specify the objectives to be met
and the achievement expectations of each
member of my work group.
4.1857 4.0000 5.00 .93705 .878 4.00 1.00 5.00
Task-oriented behaviors (A)
4.2595 4.5000 5.00 .88312 .780 4.00 1.00 5.00
0.0000
1.0000
2.0000
3.0000
4.0000
5.0000
6.0000
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Source: Author's own elaboration.
On average, the directors report closely monitoring the activities and
performance of their group, categorizing this behavior as very high. This monitoring,
combined with the setting of high-performance standards, highlights the priority
given to productivity and continuous improvement. Additionally, the direction and
coordination of unit activities are also emphasized as key strengths, reflecting
effective management and a leadership capacity focused on achieving strategic
objectives.
The importance attributed to efficiency, productivity, and quality manifests
in the concern for optimizing organizational performance. This approach not only
ensures the fulfillment of operational goals but also reinforces the alignment of
activities with institutional objectives. In this sense, the organization of tasks and
the clear specification of goals and expectations are fundamental behaviors that
allow for effective communication and ensure that all team members are aligned
with collective goals.
In the military educational context, these behaviors acquire an additional
dimension. The demand for precise and consistent results, combined with the need
to manage diverse teams, requires leadership that prioritizes both performance and
cohesion. The findings suggest that the directors of UFA-ESPE are capable of
balancing these demands through structured and effective leadership practices,
thereby strengthening the institution’s ability to meet its academic and military
objectives. In summary, the self-perception of directors regarding task-oriented
behaviors indicates a strong alignment with highly effective leadership practices.
Relationship-oriented behaviors
The self-perception of the directors regarding relationship-oriented
behaviors reveals an overall positive evaluation, in which they see themselves as
leaders committed to key aspects such as recognition, emotional support, building
strong relationships, conflict resolution, and effective communication. This pattern
is evident through the high means and consistency in the medians and modes,
reinforcing the perception that these directors tend to exhibit leadership behaviors
focused on strengthening interpersonal relationships within their teams.
Statistically, most directors fall into the very high category, indicating that
they perceive themselves as effective leaders in these aspects. In particular, the
recognition of contributions (item 1) received a mean score of 4.2714, with a
standard deviation of 1.00609, suggesting that, although there is variability in
perceptions, there is a widespread trend toward positive self-assessment. This
behavior is crucial in the context of military educational institutions, where the
valuation of effort and performance is fundamental not only for maintaining staff
motivation but also for ensuring an environment where effort and dedication are
recognized as essential values within the hierarchy. Recognition, in this sense, serves
as a key tool for maintaining high levels of morale and commitment in teams where
discipline and collective work are essential for achieving objectives.
Figure 3
| David Alexander Calderón Arregui | Marisol Josefina Godoy Mena |
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Results of the self-perception of relationship-oriented behaviors
Source: Author's own elaboration.
On the other hand, emotional support (item 4), with a mean of 4.3714 and a
standard deviation of 0.72453, also reflects a tendency to perceive leadership as
providing emotional backing to team members. The high medians and modes of 5.00
indicate cohesion in the perception of directors as figures of emotional support,
which is particularly relevant in military educational institutions. In such
environments, stress, constant demands, and high expectations are prevalent
factors; thus, a leader capable of providing emotional support and being perceived
as approachable can be crucial for the stability and well-being of the team, which
in turn contributes to a favorable organizational climate.
Regarding the maintenance of strong relationships (item 7), the mean of
4.2429, accompanied by a standard deviation of 1.01664, indicates that directors
largely perceive themselves as skilled at building lasting relationships within the
team. Although variability in responses is a factor to consider, the high medians and
modes reinforce the idea that interpersonal relationships in the leadership of
directors are a priority. In military educational institutions, the ability to establish
solid relationships is a key component for ensuring cohesion and collaborative work,
especially when hierarchies are strict and group unity is essential for the success of
educational and operational missions.
Conflict resolution (item 10), with a mean of 4.4571 and a standard deviation
of 1.01194, stands out as a crucial competency within the leadership structure. The
fact that directors perceive themselves as effective in conflict management has
direct implications for the stability of the work environment. In a military
educational context, where tensions can arise due to the nature of the work and
Media Median Fashion
Standard
deviation
Variance Range Minimum
Maximu
m
Item 1. I recognize the contributions and
achievements made by group members.
4.2714 5.0000 5.00 1.00609 1.012 4.00 1.00 5.00
Item 4. I provide support and
encouragement to the group.
4.3714 5.0000 5.00 .98056 .961 4.00 1.00 5.00
Item 7. I maintain close contact with
people in order to establish solid
relationships.
4.2429 4.0000 5.00 .95456 .911 4.00 1.00 5.00
Item 10. I help resolve conflicts.
4.4571 5.0000 5.00 .89581 .802 4.00 1.00 5.00
Item 13. I am confident that my group can
achieve important objectives.
4.3000 5.0000 5.00 .95326 .909 4.00 1.00 5.00
Item 16. I keep my group informed about
actions that may affect it.
4.3571 5.0000 5.00 .88524 .784 4.00 1.00 5.00
Relationship behaviors (A)
4.3333 4.6667 5.00 .87642 .768 4.00 1.00 5.00
0.0000
1.0000
2.0000
3.0000
4.0000
5.0000
6.0000
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hierarchical differences, the leaders' ability to manage and resolve conflicts is vital
for maintaining a harmonious work environment focused on common objectives. The
high medians and modes of 5.00 suggest that these directors believe they possess
the skills to handle conflict situations constructively, contributing to problem
resolution and strengthening group unity.
The perception of trust in the team (item 13), with a mean of 4.3000 and a
standard deviation of 1.12533, suggests that the directors believe their teams are
capable of achieving significant objectives. Mutual trust is essential in any
organization, but in the context of military educational institutions, where
teamwork is a key component for success, this perception of trust can be a
determining factor in overall performance. The high medians and modes of 5.00
indicate that the directors see themselves as leaders who foster trust within their
teams, facilitating cooperation and the achievement of established goals.
Finally, effective communication (item 16), with a mean of 4.3571 and a
standard deviation of 0.80642, stands out as a vital competency in leadership,
especially in environments where clarity and precision in information are
fundamental. The high medians and modes of 5.00 suggest that the directors are
perceived as transparent leaders, capable of keeping their teams informed about
decisions and actions that may affect their development. In a military context,
effective communication not only facilitates the flow of relevant information but
also ensures that all team members are aligned regarding the objectives and
strategies to be followed.
In summary, the directors demonstrate a positive and coherent self-
perception regarding relationship-oriented behaviors. Although there are some
variations in responses, the general trends suggest a leadership focus on developing
a cohesive environment based on recognition, emotional support, trust, conflict
resolution, and effective communication. In military educational institutions, these
leadership competencies are crucial not only for fostering a positive organizational
climate but also for ensuring the achievement of educational and operational
objectives in a demanding and disciplined environment.
Change-oriented behaviors
The self-perception of directors regarding change-oriented behaviors, as
indicated in Figure 4, reveals a generally positive trend in various key areas,
suggesting that they see themselves as effective leaders in the implementation and
management of changes within the group. These behaviors are classified as very high
and have significant implications for the context of military educational institutions.
Figure 4
Results of self-perception regarding change-oriented behaviors
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Source: Author's own elaboration.
In these institutions, generating strategic alliances to approve proposed
changes is fundamental for ensuring acceptance and support for initiatives that
promote innovation and continuous improvement in a discipline and hierarchy-driven
environment. With a mean of 4.1286, this area indicates that directors have the
capability to build the necessary coalitions to overcome internal resistance and
consolidate support. Given that this aspect is essential in a military environment
where strategic decisions depend on hierarchical consensus, its classification as high
highlights the importance of further strengthening this skill.
Moreover, the formation of work teams to guide the implementation of
changes (mean of 4.1857) reflects a collaborative approach that can foster cohesion
and commitment among personnel. In military educational institutions, where
teamwork is crucial for achieving common objectives, this skill is vital for leading
initiatives that positively impact the organizational climate.
Regarding the promotion of new strategies by the team (mean of 4.20),
classified as very high, this result underscores the willingness of directors to
encourage innovative approaches. This aspect is particularly relevant in military
educational institutions, where directors must balance tradition and structure with
the need to adapt to new challenges, such as the implementation of modern
technologies or the updating of pedagogical methods.
The experimentation with new ways of performing tasks (mean of 4.2571),
also classified as very high, suggests leadership that values creativity and innovation
in everyday processes. In the military context, this behavior is essential for preparing
teams for uncertain scenarios, allowing military educational institutions to remain
Media Median Fashion
Standard
deviation
Variance Range Minimum Maximum
Item 3. I generate alliances so that the
changes I propose are approved.
4.1286 4.0000 5.00 1.02039 1.041 4.00 1.00 5.00
Item 6. I form work teams to guide the
implementation of changes.
4.1857 4.0000 5.00 .93705 .878 4.00 1.00 5.00
Item 9. I encourage people in my team to
implement new approach strategies.
4.2000 4.0000 5.00 .98687 .974 4.00 1.00 5.00
Item 12. I experiment with new ways for
tasks to be performed.
4.2571 4.5000 5.00 .95835 .918 4.00 1.00 5.00
Item 15. I implement novel strategies for
the development of the core skills that the
group must manage.
4.2000 4.0000 5.00 .94178 .887 4.00 1.00 5.00
Item 18. I announce and celebrate the
progress made in the implementation of
the changes.
4.2429 5.0000 5.00 .98445 .969 4.00 1.00 5.00
Change-oriented behaviors (A)
4.2024 4.3333 5.00 .87958 .774 4.00 1.00 5.00
0.0000
1.0000
2.0000
3.0000
4.0000
5.0000
6.0000
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at the forefront of teaching and management strategies.
On another note, the implementation of innovative strategies for developing
core skills (mean of 4.20) demonstrates directors’ commitment to human talent
growth. In military educational institutions, this aspect holds special value, as the
development of key skills not only impacts academic performance but also prepares
students to assume leadership roles in both civil and military contexts.
Finally, the act of announcing and celebrating progress in the
implementation of changes (mean of 4.2429), classified as very high, reinforces a
culture of recognition and motivation, which is essential in military contexts to
consolidate achievements and foster team spirit. In conclusion, the statistical results
reflect favorable and consistent trends in directors’ self-perception regarding
change-oriented behaviors.
Analysis of correlation among leadership behaviors
The correlation among task-oriented, relationship-oriented, and change-
oriented leadership behaviors reflects a close and significant relationship among
these three dimensions (Table 1). First, the relationship between task-oriented and
relationship-oriented behaviors shows a very strong positive correlation (r = 0.955,
p < 0.01). This indicates that as directors prioritize planning, organization, and goal
achievement, they also tend to excel in building strong interpersonal relationships,
such as recognizing achievements and providing support to their teams. This
connection is especially important in military educational environments, where
operational efficiency and a climate of trust and motivation must go hand in hand
to achieve strategic objectives.
Table 1
Correlation matrix of the CONLID-A instrument (N=70)
1
2
3
1. task-oriented
behaviors (A)
1
,955
**
,975
**
,000 ,000
2. relationship-
oriented behaviors
(A)
,955
**
1
,950
**
,000 ,000
3. change-oriented
behaviors (A)
,975
**
,950
**
1
,000 ,000
Note. **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed).
Source: Author's own elaboration.
On the other hand, the relationship between task-oriented behaviors and
change-oriented behaviors shows the highest correlation in the analysis (r = 0.975, p
< 0.01). This suggests that directors who are effective in task management also tend
to demonstrate a significant ability to lead change processes. In this regard, rigorous
planning and efficient execution of tasks appear to be fundamental pillars for
successfully implementing strategic transformations. In the context of UFA-ESPE,
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this relationship reinforces the importance of leadership that focuses not only on
daily operations but also on driving innovation and adaptability in the face of
environmental challenges.
Additionally, the relationship between relationship-oriented behaviors and
change-oriented behaviors also shows a very high positive correlation (r = 0.950, p <
0.01). This means that directors who value interpersonal interactions and promote
a climate of trust within their teams are equally effective at managing organizational
transformation processes. This link is crucial in military educational institutions,
where transformations can generate resistance that can only be overcome through
leadership that fosters cohesion and alignment with common goals.
In conclusion, the correlation analysis highlights that the three dimensions
of leadership are deeply interrelated, and success in one dimension enhances the
others. Therefore, a balanced leadership approach that combines a focus on tasks,
relationships, and change becomes a fundamental requirement for addressing
challenges and seizing opportunities in military educational institutions. This
integrated leadership model not only enables efficient management of daily
operations but also successfully leads organizational transformations.
Reliability analysis of the CONLID-A instrument (N=70)
The evaluation of the Self-Perception Scale of Leadership Behaviors for
Directors (CONLID A), composed of 34 items, reveals highly positive results regarding
its reliability. The overall reliability coefficient of the instrument, expressed through
Cronbach’s Alpha, reaches an impressive value of 0.987. This exceptionally high
figure indicates extraordinary internal consistency in the responses to the
questionnaire items, suggesting outstanding reliability in measuring self-perceptive
leadership behaviors (Table 2).
Table 2
Reliability statistics for the CONLID-A instrument (N=70)
Measurement
instrument
Number of items Cronbach's Alpha
Cronbach's Alpha
if item deleted
CONLID A
18
0,987
0,987
Source: Author's own elaboration.
Additionally, an analysis of Cronbach's Alpha if an item is deleted shows that
even when any specific item is removed, the reliability coefficient remains
unchanged at 0.987. This consistency suggests that each item contributes equally to
the overall reliability of the scale, and the removal of any particular element does
not significantly affect the internal coherence of the instrument.
In summary, the results of the reliability tests strongly support the utility
and reliability of the CONLID-A Scale for measuring self-perceptions of leadership
behaviors among directors. The exceptionally high internal consistency, reflected in
Cronbach's Alpha, indicates that this instrument is highly reliable and accurate in
assessing leadership behaviors, providing a robust tool for research and evaluations
aimed at understanding and measuring leadership perceptions in executive contexts.
KMO and Bartlett’s tests for the CONLID-A instrument (N=70)
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The results obtained from the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test and Bartlett's
test of sphericity are essential for evaluating the validity of the leadership behavior
scale (Pizarro & Martínez, 2020). The KMO measure, which stands at 0.779, suggests
a moderate adequacy of the sample for conducting a factor analysis (Table 3).
Although it does not reach the optimal level of 0.8, this value indicates that
there is sufficient correlation among the variables to proceed with the analysis.
Furthermore, Bartlett's test of sphericity, with a chi-square statistic of 371.091 and
a significance value of 0.000, reveals that there are significant correlations among
the variables, leading to the rejection of the null hypothesis that the correlation
matrix is an identity matrix.
Table 3
KMO and Bartlett's tests for the CONLID-A instrument (N=70)
Measure of sampling adequacy (Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin)
0,779
Bartlett's test of sphericity
Approx. Chi-Square
371,091
df
3
Sig.
0,000
Source: Author's own elaboration.
Despite the moderate adequacy of the data according to the KMO measure,
the results support the validity of the scale by demonstrating significant correlations
among the variables. The application of factor analysis techniques is justified, as the
Bartlett test confirms significant correlation patterns among the dimensions of the
evaluated leadership behaviors. These preliminary findings suggest that the scale
had an adequate data foundation to explore the underlying structure of leadership
behaviors and provide a deeper understanding of its dimensions.
Exploratory factor analysis of the CONLID-A instrument (N=70)
The exploratory factor analysis (EFA) conducted to validate the leadership
behavior scale (CONLID) with a sample of 70 directors yields notable results (Table
4).
Table 4
EFA - Rotated component matrix of the CONLID-A instrument (N=70)
Component
1
Task-oriented behaviors (A)
0,990
Relationship-oriented behaviors (A)
0,982
Change-oriented behaviors (A)
0,988
Extraction method: principal component analysis.
a. 1 extracted components.
Source: Author's own elaboration.
The rotated component matrix reveals a single significant component,
evidenced by the high factor loadings of the three evaluated dimensions: task-
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oriented behaviors (A) with a loading of 0.990, relationship-oriented behaviors (A)
with a loading of 0.982, and change-oriented behaviors (A) with a loading of 0.988.
The use of the principal component analysis extraction method and the
identification of a single extracted component suggest a coherent convergence of
the dimensions of leadership behaviors into a unified structure. This finding supports
the validity of the CONLID scale, indicating that task-oriented, relationship-oriented,
and change-oriented behaviors are interrelated and form a cohesive construct within
the evaluated leadership context.
This study reveals significant findings regarding the self-perception of
leadership behaviors among the directors at UFA-ESPE. The results indicate that the
directors perceive themselves as effective leaders in the key dimensions of task-
oriented, relationship-oriented, and change-oriented behaviors. These findings
reflect an integrated leadership style that balances organizational objectives with
team well-being, a critical approach in the context of military educational
institutions where rigid hierarchical structures coexist with the need for adaptability
in a dynamic educational environment.
First, the high reliability of the CONLID-A questionnaire, evidenced by a
Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.987, highlights the methodological robustness of
the study. This result not only validates the instrument for measuring leadership
behaviors but also reinforces its applicability in military-educational environments
characterized by rigorous standards of excellence and discipline. The correlation
analyses among the dimensions also strengthen the validity of the instrument,
demonstrating the critical interrelationship among the leadership competencies
necessary in such institutions.
Regarding task-oriented behaviors, the mean of 4.2595 indicates a significant
focus on planning and achieving organizational objectives. This result underscores
the importance of efficiency and clarity in operational management, which are
fundamental aspects in institutions like UFA-ESPE, where leaders must ensure both
academic excellence and compliance with strict military regulations. These findings
align with previous studies highlighting task-based leadership as an essential factor
in achieving strategic goals in high-demand environments (Bass & Avolio, 1994;
Lupano & Castro, 2006; Fournier, 2019; Calderón Arregui & Sánchez, 2023).
In terms of relationship-oriented behaviors, the mean of 4.3333 emphasizes
the value placed on team cohesion, interpersonal recognition, and emotional
support. In a military-educational environment, these competencies are essential
for balancing hierarchical authority with the development of trust and collaboration.
This finding highlights the relevance of transformational leadership in motivating
personnel to exceed expectations, as indicated by contemporary leadership theories
(Northouse, 2021).
On the other hand, change-oriented behaviors, with a mean of 4.2024,
reflect the perception of directors as proactive agents in managing organizational
transformations. In a context like UFA-ESPE, where technological, educational, and
social changes are constant, this capability is essential for implementing innovations
that enhance institutional competitiveness.
In conclusion, the study’s results not only confirm a positive self-perception
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among the directors at UFA-ESPE regarding their leadership behaviors but also
provide a framework for understanding and strengthening leadership in military
educational institutions. This study highlights the need for a balanced approach
between operational efficiency, relational cohesion, and adaptability to change,
offering a solid foundation for future research and practical applications in
leadership development within these complex environments.
Conclusions
The study on the self-perception of leadership behaviors among the directors
of UFA-ESPE has revealed significant findings that contribute to the understanding
of leadership in military educational institutions. The results indicate that the
directors perceive themselves as effective leaders in three key dimensions of
leadership: task-oriented, relationship-oriented, and change-oriented. This
comprehensive approach to leadership, which encompasses task management,
interpersonal relationship building, and adaptability, is essential for addressing the
specific challenges of the educational-military context.
First, it is observed that the directors place a high value on task-oriented
behaviors, reflecting the need to maintain high levels of efficiency and goal
achievement in a demanding environment like that of UFA-ESPE. Furthermore, the
high regard for relationship-oriented behaviors suggests that, despite the
hierarchical nature of military institutions, the directors seek to promote team
cohesion and emotional well-being. Finally, the positive perception of change-
oriented behaviors underscores the importance of adaptability and proactivity in
managing institutional transformation processes.
One of the main inferences of this study is that, within the specific context
of military educational institutions, effective leadership should not be understood
as a collection of isolated skills but rather as an integrated approach that allows
directors to balance the demands of operational efficiency, interpersonal cohesion,
and innovation. This finding suggests that the training of directors should be
comprehensive, developing skills in both task management and people management,
as well as in facilitating change.
On the other hand, the limitations of the study, such as the sample size and
the cross-sectional design, open new avenues for research. It is recommended that
future studies explore the dynamics of leadership in military educational institutions
with larger samples and longitudinal designs that allow for the analysis of the
evolution of leadership behaviors over time and across different contexts.
Additionally, it would be pertinent to investigate how differences in educational and
military contexts can influence the perception and effectiveness of leadership styles
in these environments.
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| David Alexander Calderón Arregui | Marisol Josefina Godoy Mena |
Adriana Marrero Fernández |
About the main author
David Alexander Calderón Arregui: h
e has a Doctor in Higher University Education
from the Austral, Río Negro and Abierta Interamericana universities. His line of
research focuses on management and leadership in higher education i
nstitutions,
with a special emphasis on the military context. He has developed an outstanding
academic career through postgraduate studies in Spain, including a Master in
Business Management and Administration, a Master in Management, Innovation and
Leader
ship of Educational Centers, and a Master in Management and Management
for the Quality of Educational Centers. In addition, he has a degree in Military
Sciences and Civil Engineer from the University of the Armed Forces ESPE (Ecuador).
With extensive exper
ience in institutional management, he has made important
contributions to the academic field through scientific publications and presentations
at conferences, standing out in topics of innovation, quality management and
educational leadership.
Declaration of author responsibility
David Alexander Calderón Arregui
1:
Conceptualization, Data Curation, Formal
Analysis, Research, Methodology, Resources, Software, Supervision,
Validation/Verification, Visualization, Writing/original draft, and Writing, review
and editing
.
Marisol Josefina Godoy Mena
2:
Research, Methodology, Software, Supervision,
Validation/Verification, Writing/original draft and Writing, review and editing.
Adriana Marrero Fernández
3: Research,
Methodology, Software, Supervision,
Validation/Verification, Writing/original draft and Writing, review and editing.
Financing:
This research was carried out using our own resources.