University of Ciego de Ávila Máximo Gómez Báez
|
ISSN: 2309-8333
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RNPS: 2411
|13(2) |2025|
This is an Open Access article under the license CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/)
Estrategia y Gestión Universitaria EGU
Scientific and technological
research article
How to cite:
Ramos Valenzuela, S. M., &
Zarza Diaz, J. Q. (2025). Influence of
gender on the academic performance of
nursing students: a quantitative analysis in
Paraguay, 2024.
Estrategia y Gestión
Universitaria
, 13(2), e8851.
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15619858
Received: 17/03/2025
Accepted: 26/05/2025
Published: 04/07/2025
Corresponding author:
silvia.ins.py@gmail.com
Conflict of interest:
the authors declare
that they have no conflict of interest,
which may have influenced the results
obtained or the proposed interpretations
.
Influence of gender on the academic
performance of nursing students: a
quantitative analysis in Paraguay, 2024
Influencia del género en el rendimiento
académico de estudiantes de
enfermería: un análisis cuantitativo en
Paraguay, 2024
Influência do gênero no desempenho
acadêmico de estudantes de
enfermagem: uma análise quantitativa
no Paraguai, 2024
Abstract
Introduction: the nursing profession, historically feminized,
continues to be highly sought after in higher education.
However, despite the numerical predominance of women,
gender inequalities persist that could influence students'
academic performance. Objective: to determine the
influence of gender stereotypes on the academic performance
of university nursing students in Paraguay.
Method:
quantitative, analytical, cross-sectional study with a
descriptive-correlational scope. A structured questionnaire
was applied to a sample of 116 students from five public and
private university campuses, complemented with academic
data extracted through documentary analysis. Results: the
findings revealed a significant percentage difference in
academic performance, where women were 19.9% more likely
to experience negative alterations in their performance
compared to their male counterparts. This gap suggests
relevant implications for educational trajectory and future
workforce integration. Conclusion: the study reveals
persistent gender-related inequities in a profession
traditionally led by women, highlighting the need for inclusive
educational policies that promote equitable conditions for the
academic and professional development of all students.
Keywords: inequalities, gender stereotypes, academic
performance, students, higher education
Resumen
Introducción: la carrera de Enfermería, históricamente
feminizada, continúa siendo altamente demandada en el
ámbito de la educación superior. No obstante, a pesar de la
predominancia numérica de mujeres, persisten desigualdades
de género que podrían incidir en el rendimiento académico de
los estudiantes. Objetivo: determinar la influencia de los
estereotipos de género en el rendimiento académico de
estudiantes universitarios de enfermería en Paraguay.
Silvia María Ramos Valenzuela
1
Universidad Nacional de Asunción
https://orcid.org/0009-0000-3736-6485
silvia.ins.py@gmail.com
Paraguay
Jorge Quintin Zarza Diaz
2
Universidad Nacional de Asunción
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4885-9888
zarza1288@gmail.com
Paraguay
Estrategia y Gestión Universitaria
|
ISSN
: 2309-8333
|
RNPS:
2411
13(2) | July-December |2025|
| Silvia María Ramos Valenzuela | Jorge Quintin Zarza Diaz |
Método:
estudio de enfoque cuantitativo, de tipo analítico, transversal y de
alcance descriptivo-correlacional. Se aplicó un cuestionario estructurado a una
muestra de 116 estudiantes de cinco sedes universitarias públicas y privadas,
complementado con datos académicos extraídos mediante análisis documental.
Resultados:
los hallazgos evidenciaron una diferencia porcentual significativa en
el rendimiento académico, donde las mujeres presentaron un 19,9% más de
probabilidades de experimentar alteraciones negativas en su desempeño, en
comparación con sus pares varones. Esta brecha sugiere implicancias relevantes
en la trayectoria educativa y futura inserción laboral.
Conclusión:
el estudio
revela inequidades persistentes vinculadas al género en una profesión
tradicionalmente liderada por mujeres, lo cual subraya la necesidad de políticas
educativas inclusivas que promuevan condiciones equitativas para el desarrollo
académico y profesional de todos los estudiantes.
Palabras clave:
desigualdades, estereotipos de género, rendimiento académico,
estudiantes, educación superior
Resumo
Introdução: a profissão de enfermagem, historicamente feminizada, continua
sendo altamente demandada no ensino superior. No entanto, apesar da
predominância numérica de mulheres, persistem desigualdades de gênero que
podem impactar o desempenho acadêmico dos estudantes. Objetivo: determinar
a influência dos estereótipos de gênero no desempenho acadêmico de estudantes
universitários de enfermagem no Paraguay. Método: estudo quantitativo,
analítico, transversal e de alcance descritivo-correlacional. Um questionário
estruturado foi aplicado a uma amostra de 116 estudantes de cinco sedes
universitárias públicas e privadas, complementado por dados acadêmicos
extraídos por meio de análise documental. Resultados: os achados evidenciaram
uma diferença percentual significativa no desempenho acadêmico, onde as
mulheres apresentaram 19,9% mais chances de experimentar alterações negativas
em seu rendimento em comparação aos colegas homens. Essa disparidade sugere
implicações relevantes na trajetória educacional e na futura inserção no mercado
de trabalho. Conclusão: o estudo revela desigualdades persistentes relacionadas
ao gênero em uma profissão tradicionalmente liderada por mulheres, ressaltando
a necessidade de políticas educacionais inclusivas que promovam condições
equitativas para o desenvolvimento acadêmico e profissional de todos os
estudantes.
Palavras-chave:
desigualdades, estereótipos de gênero, desempenho
acadêmico, estudantes, ensino superior
| Silvia María Ramos Valenzuela | Jorge Quintin Zarza Diaz |
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Introduction
In higher education, the Nursing program is characterized by high demand
and a marked predominance of women among its students. However, this
overrepresentation of women does not guarantee equal conditions. Various studies
suggest that gender stereotypes, along with structural differences in access to
resources, significantly affect students' academic performance (Baldeón-Padilla et
al., 2020). The stereotype threat, understood as the pressure individuals experience
when faced with the possibility of confirming negative prejudices about their group,
can have a real impact on their performance, even in traditionally feminized
disciplines like Nursing.
Although the profession has historically been associated with femininity,
there has been a growing presence of men in recent decades (Hermosilla & Rufinelli,
2017). This incorporation, however, has not eliminated traditional perceptions about
gender roles. Recent research indicates that both men and women continue to
internalize stereotypical views about their place in the profession (Prosen, 2022),
which affects the educational and professional trajectories of students. Gender,
understood as a social construct linked to norms, roles, and differentiated
expectations (Corrales et al., 2024), can subtly or explicitly influence motivation,
performance, and opportunities for academic development.
Darias and Rodríguez (2021) demonstrated that more than 67% of nursing
curricula in Ibero-America contain an androcentric bias, with stereotypically
feminine content and limited inclusion of gender equity approaches. Teresa-Morales
et al. (2022) describe that nursing continues to be perceived as a low-status
profession, with little autonomy and limited academic demands, reinforcing
representations that may discourage academic commitment, particularly among
women. These social constructions impact self-efficacy, learning strategies, and
evaluation outcomes, limiting student performance (García, 2022).
Wan Chik et al. (2012) emphasized that understanding gender differences in
academic performance is essential for educators to offer differentiated and
equitable support. Other authors, such as Ortigoza (2022), note that socialization,
cultural norms, and individual characteristics linked to gender are relevant factors
in explaining the performance disparities observed between men and women in
educational contexts. Women's trajectories, in particular, are often marked by
additional burdens, familial and social pressures, and reduced access to mentors and
academic role models.
Moreover, the effects of gender on academic performance are not limited to
schooling but also extend to access to leadership positions, salary equality, and
professional development. According to the Pan American Health Organization
(2024), nurses continue to face structural barriers to professional advancement,
despite constituting the majority of the workforce in the health sector. This reality
highlights that gender inequities cannot be eliminated by mere numerical presence
but require a thorough review of educational and cultural structures.
Based on this theoretical framework, the present study aims to analyze the
influence of gender on teaching-learning processes, using academic performance in
university nursing students as an indicator. The main hypothesis proposed is:
| Silvia María Ramos Valenzuela | Jorge Quintin Zarza Diaz |
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University students show differences in their academic performance determined by
the cultural construction of gender. From this, the null hypotheses were formulated:
H1: There were no alterations in the academic performance of university
nursing students based on gender.
H2: There were no alterations in the academic performance of university
nursing students.
The approach adopted is quantitative, allowing for an objective
measurement of the observed differences and facilitating the identification of
potential barriers to academic equity. This research falls within the line of studies
on gender equality in higher education and seeks to provide empirical evidence that
contributes to the formulation of inclusive policies and pedagogical strategies that
ensure fair conditions for all students, regardless of gender. Recognizing and making
visible these inequities is the first step toward transforming educational
environments into more equitable spaces, with a direct impact on the quality of
health care and the social development of the country.
Methods and materials
Type of Study: This study was conducted using a quantitative approach, with
an analytical, non-experimental, cross-sectional design, and a descriptive-
correlational scope. This typology allowed for the exploration of the association
between gender and academic performance without manipulation of variables. The
main data collection technique was a structured survey.
Population and Sample: The population consisted of university students in
the Nursing program from five higher education institutions: the Faculty of Nursing
and Obstetrics at the National University of Asunción (FENOB-UNA), with campuses
in San Lorenzo (Main Campus), San Estanislao, Concepción, and Quindy; and the
Ibero-American University (UNIBE), main campus. The selection of these institutions
was based on convenience, considering the accessibility for researchers and the
territorial representation of urban and rural areas in the Central, San Pedro,
Concepción, Paraguarí, and Asunción departments. These institutions encompass
both the public and private sectors.
Only students enrolled in the first semester of the years 2019 and 2020 were
included. Participation was voluntary, after signing an informed consent form.
For the sample size calculation, the formula for finite populations was
applied, considering a confidence level of 95% and a margin of error of 5%. The total
population was 190 students, and an expected sample size of 128 participants was
estimated. Ultimately, an effective sample of 116 students was obtained, selected
through simple random sampling.
Table 1
Sample calculation
| Silvia María Ramos Valenzuela | Jorge Quintin Zarza Diaz |
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University
Population
Sample
FENOB-UNA MAIN CAMPUS
131
93
FENOB-UNA SAN ESTANISLAO CAMPUS
15
6
FENOB-UNA QUINDY CAMPUS
22
6
FENOB-UNA CONCEPCIÓN CAMPUS
11
3
UNIBE MAIN CAMPUS
11
8
Total
190
116
Source: Authors' own elaboration.
Data Collection Techniques and Instruments: two methods of data
collection were used. The first was a digital questionnaire with two sections: Section
1 contained closed questions for population identification, while Section 2 included
closed questions for sociocultural and demographic characterization, as well as
aspects of daily life and gender dimensions. The second method involved obtaining
statistics from secondary sources. In Section 1 of the questionnaire, respondents
were asked for their identification numbers to obtain their grades from each
educational institution's database, applying the document analysis technique.
Procedures for Instrument Validation: for the validation of the
instruments, the expert opinion technique was used, selecting five professionals.
The degree of agreement among the experts was determined using the content
validity coefficient (CVC) of Hernández Nieto (2002), resulting in a value of 0.866,
indicating good validity and agreement (Pedrosa et al., 2014). Subsequently, the
instrument was subjected to a pilot test with 17 final-year nursing students. The
results were analyzed for internal reliability using Cronbach's Alpha, yielding a result
of 0.93, indicating high or excellent consistency.
Data Collection Procedures: formal permission was requested from each
institution for conducting the research. Once the instrument was validated, the final
application of the digital questionnaire proceeded. The link was provided by the
researchers so that students could access it from their devices to complete the
survey. An informed consent form was provided for participation, which was
voluntary.
Data Processing and Analysis: the data were consolidated in Excel format,
then processed and analyzed using SPSS v. 21 and Stata v. 16. The analysis consisted
of two stages: descriptive analysis for population characterization, assessment
between gender variables and academic performance, and regression analysis to
determine the explanatory variables of academic performance by gender.
Ethical Aspects: the study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the
Graduate School of the Ibero-American University – Paraguay. Participation in the
research was voluntary, with informed consent included at the beginning of the
questionnaire, ensuring that the identification data of the subjects were protected.
The secondary information provided by the universities was treated with full
confidentiality and strictly used for research purposes.
| Silvia María Ramos Valenzuela | Jorge Quintin Zarza Diaz |
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Results and discussion
This section presents and analyzes the findings regarding the influence of
gender on the academic performance of university nursing students in Paraguay,
considering sociodemographic variables, quantitative data, and the application of
statistical tests.
Table 2
Characteristics of the study population
freq.
%
Gender
Female
93
80,2
Male
23
19,8
Age group
21 to 25 years
91
78,4
26 to 30 years
18
15,5
31 to 35 years
4
3,4
36 to 42 years
3
2,7
Marital status
Single
92
79
Married
8
7
Cohabiting
16
14
Source: Authors' own elaboration.
Note. Table 2 shows that the sample consisted of 116 students, of which 80.2% were
women and 19.8% were men. The predominant age group was 21 to 25 years (78.4%).
Regarding marital status, 79% identified as single, while 14% were cohabiting and 7%
were married.
Table 3
Academic performance of nursing students by gender
Gender
Average
Grade
1
st
Year
Average
Grade
4
th
Year
Maintained
Average
Female
n=93
4,00
3,91
87,10%
Male
n=23
3,98
3,92
91,30%
Source: Authors' own elaboration.
Note. Table 3 reveals that although the overall averages at the beginning and end
of the program were similar between men and women, there was a greater tendency
for female students to experience a loss in performance. Only 87.1% of them
maintained their average throughout the program, compared to 91.3% of the men.
This difference suggests an unfavorable pattern specifically affecting women.
| Silvia María Ramos Valenzuela | Jorge Quintin Zarza Diaz |
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These results align with previous studies documenting how gender
stereotypes and social expectations differentially affect university students. Authors
such as Wan Chik (2012), Ortigoza (2022), and Davalos (2021) agree that women face
additional pressures related to gender roles, which can negatively impact their
academic performance.
Moreover, it has been observed that in traditionally feminized contexts such
as nursing, men may benefit from a phenomenon known as “minority favoritism,”
receiving greater attention or institutional support (Fernández & Canova, 2024). This
could explain the slight advantage observed in their sustained performance.
However, men also face unique challenges in this field, including social
stigmatization, discrimination, and the absence of male role models in the academic
sphere (Caputo & Ross, 2023; Mora-Heras, 2022). Despite this, their adaptation
strategies appear more effective in terms of academic stability, as our data indicate.
On the other hand, women tend to use deep learning strategies more
frequently, which could explain their overall higher academic performance in
previous studies (Duarte et al., 2021; Grajales-Alonso et al., 2022). However, they
also report higher academic stress associated with conflicts related to gender roles,
as noted by Corrales et al. (2024), with 63% of women expressing this pressure
compared to 22% of men.
Table 4
Application of the hypothesis test by measure of association
Average
or Acceptable
1
st
Year
Average
or Acceptable
4
th
Year
Female
a
b
a+b
Male
c
d
c+d
a+c
b+d
n
 = ( × )/( × )
Source: Authors' own elaboration.
Note. For the hypothesis test, academic averages for the 1st and 4th Years were
dichotomized, considering grades from 2 to 3 as “Average or Acceptable,” and
absolute numbers from 4 to 5 as “Very Good to Excellent Averages.”
The exposure factor belonging to the female gender.
Ho: University students experienced a change in their academic performance
determined by the cultural construction of gender.
H1: There were no changes in the academic performance of nursing students
based on gender.
H2: There were no changes in the academic performance of nursing students.
| Silvia María Ramos Valenzuela | Jorge Quintin Zarza Diaz |
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With a p-value of 0.05, the score obtained for the Female gender was 0.19,
with a standard error of 0.608. Therefore, H1 and H2 were rejected, and Ho was
accepted: Female students had a 19.9% higher likelihood of experiencing changes in
their academic performance (average or acceptable performance) compared to male
students.
The study also confirms the need to consider the role of the institutional
context in the reproduction of inequalities. The lack of female representation in
leadership teaching positions and the use of androcentric curricula (Darias &
Rodríguez, 2021; Atak & Meriç, 2023) reinforce exclusionary models that affect the
motivation and academic self-esteem of women.
Teacher representation, especially that of female mentors, has been shown
to have a positive effect on the performance of female students, increasing GPA by
up to 0.38 points in longitudinal studies (Atak & Meriç, 2023). This highlights the
importance of creating more equitable and representative academic environments.
Beyond academic performance, these disparities have repercussions on
professional trajectories, affecting job promotion, salary equality, and access to
leadership positions. According to the Pan American Health Organization (2024), 73%
of Latin American nurses report having experienced salary discrimination, and only
28% hold managerial positions despite being the majority in the profession (ICN,
2023; Cassiani et al., 2020).
Additionally, future job satisfaction is closely linked to the equity
experienced during the training process. Shim and Park (2023) demonstrated that
higher levels of perceived equity during training translate into greater commitment
and retention in the profession.
Table 5
Academic performance of nursing students by gender
1
st
Year
2
nd
Year
Gender
Female
Count
36
20
94
% Within
Female
Gender
38%
21%
81%
Male
Count
7
5
24
% Within
Male
Gender
29%
20%
19%
Count
116
Total
100%
Source: Authors' own elaboration.
| Silvia María Ramos Valenzuela | Jorge Quintin Zarza Diaz |
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This research presents some limitations that should be considered when
interpreting the results. First, the cross-sectional design employed allows for the
identification of associations between gender and academic performance at a
specific point in time but does not enable the establishment of causal relationships
or the observation of changes over time. Second, although the sample of 116
students represents 61% of the target population, its convenience selection and
concentration in five university campuses limit the generalization of the findings to
other educational contexts in the country. Finally, the absence of longitudinal
follow-up prevents the analysis of the evolution of academic performance
differences between genders throughout the university trajectory, which would have
provided a deeper understanding of the factors involved.
Conclusions
Based on the results of the study and considering the central ideas that
guided this research, the following conclusions are drawn, highlighting the main
contributions of the work:
This study confirms that gender stereotypes significantly influence the
academic performance of university nursing students in Paraguay. The analyzed
sample demonstrates a clear disparity, with women having a 19.9% higher likelihood
of experiencing negative changes in their academic performance compared to men.
This finding underscores a persistent issue in higher education in nursing, challenging
the notion that this field, seemingly led by women, is free from gender inequalities.
The research highlights that while no significant differences are observed in
the initial and final averages of the program, a detailed analysis of the data reveals
a marked difference in the decline of academic performance over the years of study,
with this decline being more pronounced among women. This suggests that although
both groups may start their studies with a similar level of performance, women
experience a greater deterioration in their performance as they progress in their
studies.
These results have important implications for the design of educational
policies and support programs for nursing students. Educational institutions need to
implement strategies that address gender inequalities and promote an equitable
learning environment for all students.
This research contributes to the understanding of how gender stereotypes
affect the professional development of women in nursing. Women not only face
obstacles in their academic performance but also encounter challenges in achieving
leadership positions and attaining salary equality in the workplace.
The study provides concrete evidence of the influence of gender stereotypes
on the academic performance of nursing students in Paraguay, leading to the
necessity of addressing gender inequities in higher education to ensure that all
students have equal opportunities for academic and professional success.
From the obtained results, the importance of future research that addresses
| Silvia María Ramos Valenzuela | Jorge Quintin Zarza Diaz |
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this phenomenon from a longitudinal or comparative approach is emphasized, thus
allowing for the monitoring of the evolution of gender gaps in academic performance
throughout university training. Such studies will contribute to identifying risk and
protective factors, as well as designing more effective educational interventions
aimed at promoting gender equity in higher education.
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| Silvia María Ramos Valenzuela | Jorge Quintin Zarza Diaz |
About the main author
Silvia María Ramos Valenzuela
:
She holds a PhD in Education, a Master's degree in
University Didactics with a specialization in Scientific Research, and a Master's
degree in Project Design, Management, and Evaluation. She specializes in Hospital
Administration, Pedagogy, Economics, and Nursing Care. Professionally, she has been
a pediatric emergency nurse for 17 years, with experience in decision
-making role
s
within the Paraguayan Ministry of Health, including as National Supervisor and
Coordinator of Higher Education at the National Institute of Health.
Declaration of author responsibility
Silvia María Ramos Valenzuela
1: Conceptualization,
Data curation, Formal analysis,
Research, Methodology, Resources, Software, Supervision, Validation/Verification,
Visualization, Writing/original draft and Writing, review and editing.
Jorge Quintin Zarza Diaz
2: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Researc
h,
Methodology, Validation/Verification, Visualization, Review, Writing and Editing
.
Financing:
This research was carried out using our own resources.
Special Acknowledgments: